I.Introduction

The Republic of Yemen acceded to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women in May 1984 and presented its combined seventh and eighth national reports on progress in the implementation of the Convention on 27 October 2021. In accordance with article 18 of the Convention, Yemen is submitting its combined ninth to eleventh periodic national report, which documents the most significant achievements made in the period 2021–2024 and presents an overview of the challenges and difficulties faced by Yemen during the same period.

The report covers the national policies, programmes and initiatives adopted by Yemen to empower women and improve their status in all aspects of political, economic, social and cultural life. It also highlights the difficulties and challenges faced in implementation, particularly given the current circumstances facing the country.

Yemen reaffirms its unwavering commitment to the principles of equality, justice and human rights, and hopes that the present report will provide it with an opportunity to engage in constructive dialogue with the Committee and benefit from its recommendations to strengthen national efforts towards advancing women’s rights and achieving sustainable development based on full partnership between women and men.

The National Committee for Women wishes to express its gratitude and appreciation to the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) for providing technical and financial support and to the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia for providing technical support and assisting the Committee’s team and experts in preparing this report. It is also grateful to the government bodies and civil society organizations that provided data and information for the report, and to all members of the technical team. The team spared no effort in providing advice and revising the report to ensure that it presented an objective picture and offered ways to achieve justice and practical solutions for women’s empowerment.

National Committee for Women

II.Process and methodology for the preparation of the report

1.The combined ninth to eleventh periodic reports of Yemen were prepared for submission to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women pursuant to article 18 of the Convention and were approved by the National Committee for Women of Yemen through a participatory process involving government agencies and civil society. The reports were prepared on the basis of the following:

(a)The guidelines and general recommendations issued by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women;

(b)The concluding observations on the combined seventh and eighth periodic reports of Yemen;

(c)The comprehensive national review of progress towards the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (2020–2024);

(d)The first voluntary national review of Yemen under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

2.The report was reviewed at a workshop held in the temporary capital, Aden, attended by the heads of the branches of the National Committee for Women in Lahij, Abyan, Shabwah, Ta‘izz and Ma’rib Governorates and by representatives of relevant agencies in those Governorates. The workshop brought together a wide range of participants, including experts, government officials, representatives of civil society organizations, political parties and organizations, and the media.

3.The report drew on data from the national reports previously prepared by Yemen as part of its comprehensive national review of progress towards the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (2020–2024) and from its first voluntary report on its commitments under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The National Committee for Women, through the technical team that prepared the report, contributed to the development of a number of indicators related to gender equality.

4.The structure of the report follows that of the concluding observations on the combined seventh and eighth periodic reports of Yemen. The report specifically addresses the paragraphs in section F, “Principal areas of concern and recommendations”, and outlines achievements in four parts corresponding to the main parts of the Convention:

(a)Part I: non-discrimination – articles 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6.

(b)Part II: civil and political rights – articles 4, 7, 8 and 9.

(c)Part III: economic and social rights – articles 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14.

(d)Part IV: family matters – articles 15 and 16.

III.General context of the conflict and its impact on women and girls

5.Yemen is experiencing a difficult and complex period following many years of conflict and instability. The conflict has caused significant damage to State institutions, undermining the Government’s ability to manage public affairs and provide basic services to citizens. The State’s inability to extend its control over all areas has also contributed to its inability to provide services to everyone. The Houthis control about 20% of the territory of Yemen, while the legitimate Government controls about 80%. Despite the numerous initiatives taken by national and international actors, the lack of consensus among political factions and the persistence of internal divisions are hindering peace efforts and delaying the reconstruction process.

6.The undermining of State institutions has had significant implications for the effectiveness of the legislative, executive and judicial branches, which in turn has had a negative impact on the system of governance and transparency, and on the State’s ability to involve women in decision-making processes and the management of public affairs. In that context, the Riyadh Agreement of 2019, sponsored by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in collaboration with the Coalition to Support Legitimacy in Yemen, marked an important milestone in reuniting the nation and bringing an end to the internal military clashes between the legitimate Government and the Southern Transitional Council. While the need to uphold human rights and put an end to hate speech was emphasized in the Agreement, no explicit reference was made to women’s issues. Nevertheless, the Agreement provided an opportunity to promote the participation of women by broadening political representation and forming a competent Government in which women could be included in ministerial and leadership positions.

7.In 2022, the second Riyadh Agreement was signed with the aim of accelerating the implementation of the provisions of the first Agreement, with a greater focus on strengthening State institutions, expanding political participation and establishing security and administrative stability. This Agreement was considered part of national reconciliation efforts, as it contributed to restoring trust among the parties and creating the conditions necessary for the political process to resume, including the integration of a gender equality perspective into reconstruction and national reconciliation efforts.

8.On 7 April 2022, the President of Yemen, Abdrabuh Mansour Hadi, issued a decision transferring his full powers to the Presidential Leadership Council, which consists of eight members representing a broad spectrum of political and military forces and factions. This decision received broad regional and international support and led to a comprehensive restructuring of the executive branch to reflect the on-the-ground and political realities, marking a pivotal step in restoring legitimacy and broadening participation in decision-making. It provided a new political framework for the peace efforts led by the United Nations, leading to the ceasefire brokered by the Organization in April 2022, which helped to improve the humanitarian situation. As a result, Sana’a International Airport partially reopened to commercial and humanitarian flights after years of closure, and the entry of fuel and essential goods was facilitated through the port of Hudaydah. This has had a positive impact on the living conditions of citizens, patients, expatriates and students, and helped to alleviate the humanitarian crisis.

9.Pursuant to the declaration on the transfer of power, the national Consultation and Reconciliation Commission was established as an inclusive platform for various political and civil society groups to support the Presidential Leadership Council and strengthen national unity. A legal team of national experts was established to draft the rules governing the work of the Council and the Commission, in addition to an expert economic team to advise the Government and the Central Bank on urgent economic, financial and monetary reforms. These measures were followed by steps in 2023 and 2024 to launch the joint committees of the Government and the United Nations tasked with monitoring the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and expanding dialogue towards resuming the comprehensive political process.

10.Despite relative improvements on the political and humanitarian fronts, challenges remain in the area of human rights, particularly given the ongoing armed conflict, the lack of safeguards for freedom of opinion and expression, and the continued limited participation of women in decision-making. Nevertheless, developments such as the Riyadh Agreement and the establishment of the Presidential Leadership Council and its supporting bodies represent a new political foundation upon which progress can be built towards resuming the peace process and strengthening women’s participation in the negotiation, reconciliation and reconstruction phases in Yemen.

11.Notwithstanding the ongoing challenges, these political and institutional developments underscore the commitment of Yemen to continuing to fulfil its international obligations under the Convention, in particular those set forth in article 2, under which States are obliged to take legislative, administrative and institutional measures to eliminate all forms of discrimination and violence against women and girls, including during armed conflicts. In this context, the Government is working to integrate a gender equality perspective into the ongoing political process and to enhance women’s participation in consultation and reconciliation bodies and in reconstruction efforts and local governance, with a view to expanding their role in advancing sustainable peace. Yemen also reaffirms its commitment to continuing to cooperate with relevant international mechanisms to ensure that national reforms are consistent with international standards and to strengthen the protection of women and girls from all forms of violence and discrimination, as this constitutes a non-negotiable obligation and a fundamental component of the path towards peace and justice in Yemen.

12.The conflict, which has been ongoing since 2015, has led to the near-total collapse of economic infrastructure in Yemen. Gross domestic product has fallen by more than half, and key productive sectors, such as trade, agriculture and industry, have been severely affected. The Yemeni rial has lost more than two thirds of its value against foreign currencies, resulting in a sharp increase in the prices of basic goods and services and the erosion of citizens’ purchasing power. Furthermore, poverty and unemployment rates have risen to unprecedented levels, affecting women the most severely, particularly in rural areas, where many have been forced to shoulder additional burdens in providing for their families amid scarce resources and deteriorating livelihoods.

13.At the institutional level, the fragmentation of the financial and banking system has exacerbated the liquidity crisis and undermined the State’s ability to implement a unified monetary policy. The gap between the financial markets in the north and south has widened, weakening the ability of government institutions to monitor the flow of funds and stabilize the exchange rate. Nevertheless, since 2022, the Central Bank in Aden has implemented a series of reforms to curb speculation in the currency market and stabilize the national currency. For example, foreign currency buying and selling operations were suspended for all banks and non-compliant currency exchange companies, and the licences of approximately 30 financial and currency exchange companies were revoked for violating regulations. Transacting business with banks that had not relocated their headquarters to Aden was also suspended, which helped to bring about relative stability in the value of the rial and a temporary improvement in the confidence of markets and financial institutions in 2023 and 2024.

14.Yemen continues to face one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises. Millions of Yemenis are experiencing shortages of food, medicine, safe drinking water and basic services, with women and girls in particularly vulnerable situations. The conflict and the deterioration of services have led to rising rates of violence against women and girls, including early marriage and denial of access to education and basic healthcare, particularly reproductive health services. These challenges have been exacerbated by widespread internal displacement, which has forced families to rely increasingly on humanitarian aid as a primary means of survival.

15.Despite these difficult circumstances, the Government continues to mobilize its national institutions for the protection of women and children, together with civil society organizations and international partners, to mitigate the effects of the economic crisis and protect the most vulnerable groups, primarily women and girls. Efforts to that end include livelihood support programmes, the provision of cash transfers and the implementation of small-scale economic initiatives for women in affected areas, as well as support for initiatives aimed at improving women’s access to financing and income-generating activities. These efforts are part of a push to gradually rebuild the national economy and restore financial stability, thereby creating a safe and inclusive environment that enables women to participate actively in economic and social development.

16.With regard to social services, the conflict has directly affected people’s daily lives, as health and education services have declined significantly and water and electricity networks have been damaged, leading to a deterioration in living conditions. Millions of Yemenis are suffering from extreme poverty and food insecurity, while many are living under harsh conditions of displacement. Environmental challenges such as drought and water scarcity have also contributed to increased pressures on local communities. Nevertheless, local and international communities continue their efforts to improve the humanitarian situation and provide support to affected families.

17.Hospitals, schools, markets and homes have been destroyed in the ongoing conflict. Families have been forced to flee, exposing women to additional risks on roads, at checkpoints and in overcrowded camps. Houthi militias have planted more than 2.5 million landmines, many of them disguised as children’s toys or rocks. As a result, 4,501 people, including 338 women and 979 children, have died and 381 women and 1,213 children have been injured. Amid this fragmentation, basic services have almost completely collapsed, particularly in densely populated areas controlled by Houthis. This collapse has affected more than 27 million people, including 3 million internally displaced persons, while 17 million people are facing severe food insecurity, 7 million of whom are in a critically dangerous situation. Houthi militias have recruited more than 30,000 children. To prevent such recruitment, the Government has issued military decrees and implemented rehabilitation and reintegration programmes, but the risk remains elevated in areas under Houthi control.

18.Women and girls are particularly affected by these circumstances. According to official sources, Yemen loses six women every week as a result of direct violence. Between 2020 and 2024, the Ministry of Human Rights documented 4,279 violations against women and the injury of 2,361 others. Houthi militias also committed violations such as abducting women from protests or their homes, torturing them and forcing some to perform labour or gather intelligence. The fate of many of them remains unknown. Many women have lost access to education and employment, and their suffering has been exacerbated by displacement, the loss of breadwinners and the deterioration of services. Women also face significant difficulties in obtaining healthcare and economic support, in addition to an increased risk of gender-based violence. Nevertheless, women play important roles in supporting their families and communities, and some participate in local peacebuilding and relief initiatives. Empowering women and involving them in reconstruction and recovery efforts is a crucial step towards building a more stable and equitable Yemen for all.

19.The impact of the conflict on women and girls has varied by region. In Houthi-controlled areas in the north, there are strict restrictions on movement, work and public participation; in areas under the control of the legitimate Government, the restrictions are less formal, but women face security and economic challenges. In rural and front-line areas, access to services is limited, rates of child marriage are higher and home births are more common than hospital deliveries, all of which affect mothers’ reproductive health. Areas of displacement and camps face particular challenges, including a lack of safety and privacy, limited access to services and an increased risk of violence against women and girls.

20.In the light of the concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, in particular paragraphs 11 and 12, the Government of Yemen has, since 2021, taken a series of measures aimed at strengthening its compliance with the Convention during the armed conflict, in line with the Committee’s general recommendations Nos. 28 and 30. Yemen has continued to uphold its commitment to the core international conventions in the field of international humanitarian law, including the four Geneva Conventions and their Protocols Additional, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction and the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The National Committee for International Humanitarian Law, established in 1999, continues to play a role in raising awareness of the provisions of international humanitarian law and ensuring that the armed forces comply with those obligations, with a particular focus on protecting women and girls from the effects of armed conflict.

21.As part of its efforts to strengthen cooperation with the United Nations and international mechanisms, the Government of Yemen has, since 2018, sought to facilitate the work of United Nations agencies and independent bodies, including the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), by providing safe access to areas under its control to support monitoring, investigation and documentation activities. In 2018, it established a government committee to coordinate the work of the Panel of Experts of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 2140 (2014). In 2019, a high-level committee, chaired by the Minister of Planning and International Cooperation, was formed to coordinate the activities of international organizations, facilitate cooperation with United Nations agencies and ensure the compliance of Yemen with its obligations under international humanitarian law, refugee law and international criminal law. Since 2021, these committees have continued to fulfil their mandates by developing institutional coordination mechanisms and enhancing the exchange of information between national and United Nations bodies, thereby making it possible for international recommendations related to human rights and the protection of women and girls to be implemented more effectively.

22.In 2023 and 2024, this cooperation was expanded to include the participation of national stakeholders in regular meetings with United Nations offices and humanitarian organizations operating in Yemen, with the aim of accelerating the implementation of the recommendations of the Human Rights Council regarding fact-finding in Yemen. In addition, a joint plan between the Government and several United Nations agencies was adopted through the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation. The plan includes practical measures to strengthen the protection of civilians and improve relief and accountability mechanisms, with priority given to the needs of women and girls in conflict-affected areas. The high-level committee also coordinated with international organizations to facilitate field visits by United Nations teams to the Governorates of Ma’rib, Hadramawt and Aden to monitor the implementation of humanitarian protection programmes and ensuring the unimpeded delivery of aid, in cooperation with the High Relief Committee and local authorities.

23.In 2024, the Government stepped up its engagement with OHCHR with a view to strengthening the capacities of national staff in monitoring, documenting and investigating violations. To that end, specialized training workshops on transitional justice mechanisms, evidence collection and victim protection were organized in Aden, Ma’rib and Ta‘izz. In the same vein, a new national coordination unit was established within the Ministry of Human Rights to oversee the implementation of recommendations from United Nations mechanisms. The Ministry is also developing a shared electronic database with the United Nations to document violations and classify them by gender, age and geographical location. These efforts have contributed to strengthening institutional cooperation between the State and the United Nations system and to enhancing transparency and accountability in response to the Committee’s recommendations, thereby ensuring the protection of the rights of women and girls in armed conflict and post-conflict situations.

24.With regard to facilitating humanitarian access, the Government of Yemen has, since 2018, continued to ensure the passage of aid through 22 land and sea corridors to all governorates, in cooperation with the High Relief Committee, established in 2015, and with United Nations agencies and humanitarian organizations. This is done in accordance with Security Council resolutions 2139 (2014) and 2165 (2014), with the aim of ensuring that aid reaches all affected populations, including women and girls, quickly, safely and without hindrance, given the deteriorating humanitarian situation. The Government organized a national conference in December 2024 to discuss the obligations of Yemen towards refugees and participated in the second Global Refugee Forum, held in Geneva in 2023 with the aims of mobilizing international support and increasing contributions to bridge the gap in funding for the humanitarian response plan, in response to the Committee’s appeals regarding resource shortages.

25.As part of efforts to strengthen protection against gender-based violence, a number of institutional initiatives were implemented during the period 2020–2023. Coordination committees for the protection of women and children were established in seven governorates; a women’s and children’s rights division was set up in the Office of the Public Prosecutor in 2022; and women litigant units were established in some courts of appeal to facilitate access to justice. In addition, the General Department for Family Protection and Women Police was established in Aden in 2022, as was a similar entity in Ma’rib. More than 900 women security officers were trained in various governorates, in cooperation with international organizations. The establishment of a protection section within the executive unit for the management of camps for internally displaced persons, together with the launch of hotlines, has led to improved reporting of violence and coordination of referrals. Meanwhile, the monitoring and documentation unit, established in 2021, continued to track violations disaggregated by gender, monitor the use of children in the conflict and analyse data for the preparation of official national reports.

26.As part of efforts to combat impunity and ensure accountability, the Office of the Public Prosecutor established, in 2020, a special division for women and children that is tasked with investigating violations against women and girls. In addition, the National Committee to Investigate Claims of Human Rights Violations, established in 2012 and composed of independent judges, has continued to document violations and prepare periodic reports on crimes committed by various parties, referring a number of cases to the Office of the Public Prosecutor. The Government has also stepped up its efforts to combat child recruitment, clear landmines and investigate serious human rights violations in accordance with international standards, reflecting the State’s commitment to holding perpetrators of serious violations accountable and preventing recurrence.

27.The State has continued its efforts to provide protection and humanitarian assistance to internally displaced persons. It provided shelter to more than 84,000 displaced families in 2022 and moved them from emergency shelters to adequate transitional housing that preserves their privacy and dignity. Extensive awareness-raising programmes focused on child protection and the risks of early marriage, violence and harassment were implemented, reaching more than 47,000 beneficiaries. In addition, a project to provide access to education for displaced children and host communities was implemented in Ma’rib, through which education and protection were provided to 14,000 boys and girls, and teachers and local communities received support.

Women and peace and security

28.In line with the recommendation in paragraph 14 (a), the Government of Yemen has continued to take institutional steps to promote women’s participation in peace, security and reconstruction efforts, despite the challenges posed by the armed conflict. The adoption by Yemen in 2020 of its first national action plan on Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) marked a significant milestone in national recognition of the women and peace and security agenda. Under the leadership of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour, a national institutional structure was established to implement the national action plan on women and peace and security in accordance with clear terms of reference for each of the plan’s components. This structure consists of an advisory body chaired by the Minister of Social Affairs and Labour, a national planning, coordination and monitoring team led by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour, and governorate-level working groups chaired by governors, including the Aden Governorate working group, managed by the Director of the General Directorate for Women’s Development in the Governor’s Office. A coordination and monitoring policy, approved by the Minister of Social Affairs and Labour, was adopted for the periods 2020–2022 and 2022–2023. This was followed by training programmes for representatives of government and security agencies involved in the plan, aimed at adapting its implementation to the Yemeni context.

29.As part of institutional capacity-building efforts, training sessions on gender-based violence, human rights and the protection of women and children have been conducted for male and female police officers. Training has also been provided to build the skills of law enforcement officers in drafting legal reports and referring cases to the Office of the Public Prosecutor. In addition, 10 police stations were renovated to provide gender-sensitive work environments, awareness-raising campaigns were conducted to encourage girls affected by gender-based violence to seek referral services, and a community radio programme on violence and the protection of women was launched. A plan for police stations in Aden Governorate was implemented in collaboration with international organizations operating in the Governorate. Coordination mechanisms were developed with the Ministries of Justice and the Interior for the exchange of information related to women and peace and security. The Ministry of Justice has encouraged civil society organizations and women’s, youth and academic groups to participate in the implementation of the national action plan on women and peace and security and to share data and expertise. It also developed a national database of projects, programmes, studies and media reports related to the plan’s objectives.

30.Coordination with academic institutions and the Central Statistical Organization has been strengthened in conducting research and surveys on gender-based violence and addressing gaps in data and analysis. Field activities have been carried out in several governorates in collaboration with partner organizations to improve access to information and statistics. These activities included training 60 security and judicial personnel in Aden Governorate on criminal law, investigative skills and police codes of conduct, and organizing, in cooperation with the Aden Security Department and under the supervision of the local team, weekly consultative meetings for male and female law enforcement officers to share experiences with the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour.

31.Due to limited funding, the first phase of the national plan was focused on the security sector and women’s participation therein. Over the next three years, the Government is looking forward to developing a more comprehensive plan that covers war-affected areas, while ensuring that no group of women – whether rural women, marginalized women, displaced women, refugee women, women with disabilities, young women or older women – is left behind in terms of protection and participation. The Government has also emphasized the importance of focusing on economic and psychological recovery, educational opportunities, mental health, and legal and social empowerment; strengthening institutional capacities and monitoring, follow-up and accountability mechanisms; improving infrastructure and facilities for the provision of protection; and building the capacities of local organizations to ensure the sustainability of national efforts.

32.With regard to politics and peace processes, Yemeni women have participated in several rounds of political consultations and negotiations, either directly or through advisory delegations and civil society groups. Notable examples include the participation of Fa’iqah al-Sayyid Ahmad Ba‘alawi, representing the General People’s Congress, in the negotiations held in Geneva in 2015, Nihal Naji al-Awlaqi, representing the legitimate Government, in the negotiations held in Kuwait in 2016 and Rana Ghanim, from the Nasserist Unionist People’s Organization, in the consultations held in Sweden in 2018. That same year, the Special Envoy of the Secretary-General for Yemen established a women’s advisory committee comprising eight women experts, who presented policy papers on peace, justice and reconciliation; some of them attended the negotiations in Stockholm in 2018. Despite these efforts, the representation of women in peace processes has remained limited and has not yet reached the 30% benchmark to which the Government has committed in national and international agreements.

Table 1

Participation of women in national councils formed by the legitimate Government

Entity	Number	Number of women	Percentage
Legal support team of the Presidential Leadership Council	10	2	20
Economic support team of the Presidential Leadership Council	15	2	15
Medical Council	15	3	20
Academic Accreditation Council	9	4	44

33.Although a comprehensive national framework for transitional justice and reconstruction efforts has yet to be established, women have participated in important preparatory activities focused on documenting violations, calling for restorative justice and protecting victims. Women’s and civil society initiatives have been key to relief efforts and community recovery at the local level, reflecting women’s readiness to participate more broadly in future national plans.

34.Recently, excellent results have been achieved and significant steps made towards integrating women into decision-making positions. For the first time, a woman was appointed to the Supreme Judicial Council; another was appointed head of the executive body for managing donor pledges; and a third was appointed head of the Central Statistical Organization. Women also secured four of the nine seats (45%) on the National Committee to Investigate Claims of Human Rights Violations. In the Consultation and Reconciliation Commission, established in April 2022 to support the Presidential Leadership Council, five women members (10%) occupied leadership positions, including the Vice-Chair of the Commission, the chair of the committee tasked with drafting the principles of reconciliation and the rapporteur of the committee tasked with developing the comprehensive peace framework, into which the principle of equal citizenship was incorporated. Following the formation of specialized committees in April 2024, women assumed the positions of Chair of the Rights and Freedoms Committee, Vice-Chair of the Reconciliation and Transitional Justice Committee and Rapporteur of the Political Committee and became members of the Social and Economic Committee. In addition, a female media expert was assigned to support the Media Committee and address the gap in women’s representation.

IV.Progress made in national measures to implement the provisions of the Convention

35.This section outlines the most significant measures taken to implement the provisions of each of the Convention’s four parts: part I (arts. 1–6) on non-discrimination, part II (arts. 7–9) on political and civil rights, part III (arts. 10–14) on social and economic rights and part IV (arts. 15–16) on legal equality and equality in the family. It also contains information on the efforts made to implement the Committee’s recommendations.

Part I:non-discrimination – articles 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6

I.Definition of discrimination against women and discriminatory laws

36.The national legislation of Yemen, in particular the Constitution, does not contain provisions that discriminate against women. Indeed, the national legislation upholds the principles of equality and non-discrimination in respect of all citizens. Article 41 of the Constitution provides that “all citizens are equal in their public rights and duties”, while article 24 provides that “the State shall guarantee equality of opportunity for all citizens with regard to political, economic, social and cultural activity”. In line with the recommendation in paragraph 16, Yemen drafted a constitution based on the outcomes of the National Dialogue Conference (18 March 2013–25 January 2014) that addresses discrimination against women and girls in an optimal manner. One of the relevant draft articles provides that “citizens are equal in public rights and freedoms, without discrimination on the basis of sex, colour, race, origin, religion, denomination, belief or opinion, economic or social status, disability, political or geographical affiliation, occupation, place of birth or any other considerations.” The article that follows provides that, “in order to give effect to the principle of equal citizenship, the State shall, through the enactment of legislation and the adoption of measures, bring about the active political participation of women, with a view to ensuring that they constitute no less than 30% of various authorities and bodies.”

37.There are no specific provisions in existing laws that define discrimination against women. However, there are constitutional and other legislative provisions that stipulate equality, and any violation of that principle is considered to be discrimination and is punishable by law. Those provisions include article 2 of the Judicial Authority Act, which affirms equality before the courts by stipulating that “litigants are equal before the courts”; article 23 of the Trade Act, which provides that “every citizen who has reached the age of 18 is eligible to engage in trade”; and article 3 of the General Elections Act, which provides that “the right to vote shall be granted to every citizen aged 18 and greater.”

38.With regard to the recommendation in paragraph 18 ((a)–(d)) of the concluding observations, we should like to note that the current circumstances in Yemen, which are addressed in the general context of the present report, limit the Government’s ability to implement that recommendation. Any planned legislative amendments that would establish definitions of direct and indirect discrimination must be approved by the House of Representatives, which is currently not in session because of the war.

39.The National Committee to Investigate Claims of Human Rights Violations has strived to strengthen justice and accountability mechanisms. It made a recommendation to establish a court and a prosecutor’s office for human rights violations, including violations of women’s human rights, and to conduct training programmes for judges, prosecutors and civil society organizations on transitional justice and litigation mechanisms in cases of human rights violations, with a view to ensuring accountability and protecting women.

40.In that connection, in October 2024, the National Committee to Investigate Claims of Human Rights Violations met with the President of the Supreme Judicial Council and reached an agreement on building the capacities of judges and enrolling them in training workshops on trials for human rights violations, which differ from ordinary trials. In 2023, several judges, including the head of the Judicial Inspection Authority, as well as five staff members of the Office of the Public Prosecutor and the Attorney General of the Republic, received training as part of a seminar at the Transitional Justice Centre on national experiences in prosecuting perpetrators of violations. In 2025, the National Committee to Investigate Claims of Human Rights Violations also organized two training sessions on the Human Rights Court and related trial mechanisms for civil society organizations, with a view to engaging civil society as an active partner in supporting the establishment of the Court and monitoring its work.

41.Yemeni women have played a prominent role in promoting human rights; they now work in the humanitarian sector and have been afforded opportunities on an equal footing with men, in accordance with their abilities. In addition, women’s participation in local mediation efforts has helped to reduce internal conflicts. Women have made a significant impact in local mediation, humanitarian work and community outreach, and they have helped to reconcile points of view in local conflicts and participated in voluntary initiatives. Local women’s councils have been established with the support of international and local organizations, political parties and social and political movements. Women leaders have played prominent roles in society by spearheading economic and humanitarian initiatives, confronting and documenting abuses and bringing the voices of victims to the attention of the international community.

42.The Family Protection Department of the Ministry of the Interior, which consists of women police officers who receive complaints from women, whether against spouses or relatives or in respect of cases of incest, has stepped up its efforts, with a view ensuring that such cases are handled in accordance with the law. Yemen is one of the first countries in the Arabian Peninsula to establish a women’s police force. Some of these women officers attended the Police Academy in Aden and received training in socialist countries. There are now women’s police units in most governorates, and they play a key role in interacting with women in the community and at airports, immigration and passport offices, police stations and border crossings. In addition, several meetings and training sessions were held in collaboration with civil society organizations to build the capacities of women police officers and develop their skills in interacting with women in the community

43.The National Committee for Women and the Yemeni Women’s Union have implemented awareness-raising programmes for most vulnerable groups, such as women with disabilities, internally displaced women and marginalized women, with a focus on raising awareness of their rights and empowering them to claim those rights. Some of the awareness-raising methods used have included participatory theatre, community committees, publications and radio, television and print media programmes, as well initiatives to register women and girls for civil documentation and to guarantee their rights, which were carried out despite challenges in rural and remote areas and in areas under the control of the Houthis.

II.Violence against women and girls

44.Women and girls in Yemen are disproportionately affected by violence. Violence against women and girls has increased over the course of the conflict when compared with pre-conflict levels. As a result, many families and communities have been forced to adopt harmful coping strategies in order to survive. In view of the limited shelter options available and the breakdown of formal and informal social protection mechanisms, girls, in particular those with disabilities, face an increasing number of risks, including early marriage, human trafficking, begging and child labour. Estimates indicate that, in 2023, approximately 7.1 million women and girls required services to prevent and respond to all forms of violence. However, such services are severely underfunded and limited in geographical coverage, and they are completely unavailable in certain hard-to-reach areas. Moreover, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), in its 2023 report on humanitarian response in Yemen, noted that data on violence against women and girls remain scarce and inaccurate because of fear of reporting, social stigma, weak legal redress mechanisms and other factors.

45.A study conducted by the executive unit for the management of camps for internally displaced persons found that approximately 32% of the camps require security protection services, 89,266 persons need identification documents and 86,267 children need birth certificates. In addition, reports indicate that 88% of sites lack safe spaces that are child- and women-friendly, and that there are no psychological and legal support services or mine risk education programmes at 82% of sites, thereby exacerbating the fragility of the humanitarian situation and increasing the vulnerability of women and girls to violence and exploitation.

46.With regard to documentation, the unit for monitoring and documenting human rights violations established by the Ministry of Legal Affairs and Human Rights is the national mechanism for documenting violations disaggregated by sex, with a focus on violence against women and girls, the use of children and girls in conflict and landmine-related violations. In the period 2020–2024, the unit documented 4,279 incidents of physical and verbal assault and threats, including 2,361 cases of physical assault, of which 381 were abductions, 73 were enforced disappearances, 258 were acts of torture and 1,196 were killings. The data are forwarded to the official reporting team and the government committee responsible for liaising with the Panel of Experts of the Security Council and relevant international mechanisms. The violations committed against women and their various forms are set out in table 2.

Table 2

Human rights violations against women (2020–2024)

Governorate	Abductions	Enforced disappearances	Injuries	Torture	Killings	Political trials	Total
Ibb	15	1	54	17	56		143
Abyan			13		17		30
Capital District	165	48	97	202	17	10	539
Bayda’	11	1	117	8	57		194
Jawf			135		56		191
Hudaydah	22	1	242	5	187		457
Dali‘	1		141		60		202
Mahwit	38		4	1	13		56
Ta‘izz	22	8	1 321	1	486		1 838
Hajjah	12	3	36	8	69		128
Dhamar	53	1	41	16	12		123
Raymah	2		2		1		5
Shabwah			9		4		13
Sa‘dah	7		6		4		17
Sana’a	23	10	22		12		67
Aden			31		33		64
Amran	7		5		22		34
Lahij	2		32		58		92
Ma’rib	1		53		32		86
Grand total	381	73	2 361	258	1 196	10	4 279

47.In line with the recommendation in paragraph 20 (a), the National Committee to Investigate Claims of Human Rights Violations submitted a recommendation to the Presidential Leadership Council and the Supreme Judicial Council to establish a special court and prosecutor’s office to prosecute human rights violations, including violations against women, regardless of whether they are committed during war or in peacetime. The National Committee to Investigate Claims of Human Rights Violations has followed up on this matter, with a view to pressing for the establishment and operationalization of the court. It also submitted 3,000 cases to the Office of the Public Prosecutor to initiate the necessary proceedings. In that connection, the Government is coordinating with the United Nations panels of experts and other international mechanisms, including the Joint Incident Assessment Team of the Arab Coalition to Support Legitimacy in Yemen, to investigate violations, with a view to ensuring accountability and justice, following up on financial compensation for victims, reviewing experiences in order to develop effective operational mechanisms and adding leaders implicated in violations against women to international sanctions lists.

48.In October 2024, the National Committee to Investigate Claims of Human Rights Violations met with the President of the Supreme Judicial Council, and it was agreed to enhance the capacity of judges and enrol them in training workshops organized by the National Committee on how the conduct trials in cases involving human rights violations, given that they differ from ordinary trials. In 2023, several judges, including the head of the Judicial Inspection Authority, as well as five staff members of the Office of the Public Prosecutor and the Attorney General of the Republic, were selected to participate in a training course at the Transitional Justice Centre. The workshop was aimed at presenting national approaches to and experiences in the prosecution of perpetrators of human rights violations, thereby strengthening the judiciary’s capacity to handle such cases in a professional manner.

49.In 2025, the National Committee to Investigate Claims of Human Rights Violations conducted two training sessions for civil society organizations on the Human Rights Court and the nature of trials for human rights violations, with a view to engaging civil society as an active partner in advocating for the adoption of a decision to establish the Court and monitoring the implementation thereof.

50.The General Department for Family Protection and Women Police of the Ministry of the Interior, which was established by Presidential Decision No. 288 (2005) and restructured pursuant to Decision No. 50 (2013), has been strengthened. Since 2021, the Ministry, in collaboration with Penal Reform International and the Yemeni Women’s Union, has trained 600 women police officers in Aden, Ta‘izz, Lahij, Abyan, Ma’rib and Hadramawt Governorates. In December 2022, the Ministry opened a new building for the General Department for Family Protection and Women Police in Aden and another building in Ma’rib, and it implemented training programmes for 935 women security officers in various governorates, including 150 trainees, as part of a project to enhance protection against the coronavirus disease (COVID-19).

51.With regard to the recommendations in paragraphs 20 (b) and (c), the legislation of Yemen does not include a specific law on violence against women or protection against such violence. The National Commission for Women and the Ministry of Human Rights submitted a draft law to the Government in 2014, but it was not adopted because of the war. Currently, the legal provisions set forth in the Penal Code (No. 12 of 1994) are applied in order to address various forms of violence.

52.Accordingly, cases of physical and psychological violence are addressed under the relevant provisions of the Penal Code. The Code criminalizes physical assault, verbal abuse and slander, and intentional homicide is punishable by the death penalty, with the option of paying blood money (diyah), instead. The blood money paid for a woman is half the amount that is paid for a man. Articles 289 and 292 establish penalties for slander, defamation and verbal abuse, with the penalties ranging from flogging to imprisonment and fines, depending on the nature of the offence. Articles 214 and 245 establish penalties for any person who physically assaults another person in various ways such that the assault results in death or permanent disability. With regard to sexual violence, article 249 establishes penalties for abduction and assault, including when torture occurs in the course of the abduction or the victim is raped or murdered, and the punishment may include the death penalty. Other articles, such as 233, 254 and 257, cover assault of one’s children, threats and the disclosure of recorded information or documents without the victim’s consent, with penalties ranging from imprisonment to fines. There is no clear legal definition of marital rape as understood in the international context, because, under Yemeni law, marriage is considered a religious and civil contract that is based on affection and compassion. Nonetheless, Yemeni law provides mechanisms to protect women from domestic violence, including the right to seek a dissolution of the marriage (khul‘) in cases of physical or psychological harm, failure to provide financial support, animus, adultery or infertility, in accordance with articles 54 and 72 of the Personal Status Act.

53.With regard to the recommendations in paragraphs 20 (d) and (e), although the draft law has not yet been adopted because of the political and security conditions that have prevailed in Yemen since 2015, the Government, in cooperation with the National Committee for Women and the Ministry of Human Rights, has sought to develop a national action plan to implement the law once it is adopted and to provide the resources required to ensure effective protection and service delivery. The Ministry of the Interior and the relevant agencies are strengthening support for women who are victims of violence, including by providing shelters and medical and psychological services and ensuring that women have easy access to them, continuing to allocate adequate resources for the provision of such services, training the relevant staff and conducting regular follow-up and monitoring of those services. In addition, progress has been made in strengthening the Family Protection Department of the Ministry of the Interior, which comprises women police officers who receive reports and complaints, including complaints of incest, filed by women, whether against husbands, relatives or family members. The Government is striving to facilitate the ability of nongovernmental organizations that support women victims of violence to follow up on reports and protect victims, in addition to offering witness protection programmes. Those efforts, however, are taking place amid complex economic, political and security conditions, and the results, therefore, remain limited.

54.In response to the Committee’s concluding observations, we should like to note that, despite the ongoing challenges posed by the conflict, the Government of Yemen has taken several measures aimed at strengthening protection and enhancing humanitarian services for women, girls and displaced persons. The Government has provided various types of shelter to internally displaced families by communicating the needs of shelter operators to humanitarian partners and monitoring the initiatives that are implemented, with a view to ensuring the provision of shelter in a manner that preserves dignity and privacy. In 2022, shelter was provided to 84,304 displaced families in the camps. In addition, the Government has gradually shifted from providing emergency shelter to providing more suitable and sustainable transitional housing. It has established 646 camp sites, 214 of which are in legally owned locations.

55.The Government has operationalized a protection section in the executive unit for the management of camps, established a hotline to receive complaints from displaced women and implemented a comprehensive system for referring cases to the relevant agencies. In addition, it regularly carries out awareness-raising activities in order to prevent violence and follows up on cases of abuse. The executive unit also oversees the implementation of protection and assistance programmes and projects that are aimed at addressing the causes of violence and preventing its spread, and it monitors the response of relevant government agencies in order to ensure the protection of women and girls at displacement sites.

56.With regard to the recommendation in paragraph 20 (f), judges and several judicial officials were selected to participate in training programmes designed to strengthen their capacity to address cases involving human rights violations and violence against women. In addition, civil society organizations have participated in training and awareness-raising programmes. Future plans include increasing the number of women judges, prosecutors and police officers, and providing all justice officials and medical professionals with training on investigation and trial procedures that take into account gender equality considerations. In line with the principles of accountability and preventing impunity, the Government has taken significant steps to reactivate judicial and security institutions throughout Yemen, including paying the salaries of the judiciary, appointing police chiefs, operationalizing military schools, colleges and institutes, initiating legal proceedings against the leaders of armed groups who have been implicated in violations and referring several human rights cases to the relevant prosecutors.

57.With regard to the recommendation in paragraph 20 (g) concerning male guardians, women’s freedom of movement is restricted in Houthi-controlled areas. The Government is striving to streamline legal procedures for women. This includes removing male guardian restrictions, reducing fees and documentation requirements, providing practical assistance when needed, increasing transparency, expediting legal procedures and raising public awareness of legal procedures and the right of women to access justice.

58.The competent authorities collect data on violence against women and girls, disaggregated by age, region and disability, as well as on the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator. The data include the number of reported cases, the number of cases not prosecuted, the number of convictions and acquittals, the types of penalties imposed and the amount of compensation awarded to victims, in order to ensure effective follow-up and reform existing policies and mechanisms. The Government is striving to reactivate an information system that covers the security agencies, the judiciary, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour and the Ministry of Health. The security agencies investigate cases of physical violence and submit reports on such cases to the Family Protection Department, and the judicial authorities document the cases. The official data are disseminated by the Central Statistical Organization. Civil society organizations, such as the Yemeni Women’s Union, are also involved in documenting and monitoring cases of violence against women. This includes disaggregating data by age, region and disability, providing legal counselling through hotlines, referring cases to the relevant authorities and using data to develop awareness-raising campaigns and strategies for support and protection.

III.National machinery for the advancement of women

59.The National Committee for Women is the national governmental body responsible for women’s issues. It was established by Decision of the Prime Minister No. 97 (1996), in implementation of the outcomes of the Beijing Platform for Action, with a view to contributing to the development and proposal of policies, strategies and plans to advance the status of women in both urban and rural areas. The National Committee for Women was restructured pursuant to Decision of the Prime Minister No. 68 (2000) establishing the Supreme Council for Women’s Affairs, which is chaired by the Prime Minister. Its membership comprises three ministers, the Chair of the National Committee for Women and her deputy, and several prominent women. The primary mission of the Supreme Council is to integrate women’s issues into the broader policies of the State, in order to improve the political, economic, social and cultural situation of women.

60.The Supreme Council for Women’s Affairs was restructured pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 25 (2003), by which its membership was increased to include seven ministers responsible for relevant issues, one deputy minister, a representative of the General Federation of Yemeni Chambers of Commerce and Industry and the heads of the governorate-level branches of the National Committee for Women that are currently active in the governorates liberated by the legitimate and recognized Government, namely, Lahij, Abyan, Shabwah, Mahrah, Hadramawt, Suqutra, Ta‘izz and Ma’rib. In the aforementioned decree, the National Committee for Women is defined as the advisory and executive body of the Supreme Council for Women’s Affairs. During the reporting period, the Government reactivated the National Committee for Women, which resumed its work from the temporary capital, Aden. The Committee carried out several activities and programmes and conducted studies within its field of work, and it established several branches in various governorates. Among the most notable achievements of the Committee was the development of its own strategy for women, namely, the Five-Year Strategic Plan of the National Committee for Women (2023–2027). The strategic objectives that are set out in the Strategic Plan include the following: developing the infrastructure and institutional framework of the National Committee for Women in order to create a conducive work environment and put in place a qualified team and well-equipped branches, thereby ensuring satisfactory and effective performance; expanding partnerships between the Committee and all stakeholders in the development sector, in order to advance women’s issues in Yemen; improving the social and economic status of Yemeni women, in order to ensure their effective participation and empowerment; and enhancing the status of women in the education sector. The aims of the fifth strategic objective are to strengthen the foundations for protecting Yemeni women from various forms of violence; improve women’s level of political participation; improve the status women with regard to practices and services related to safe motherhood and reproductive health; and promote the enactment, amendment, implementation and enforcement of gender-sensitive laws that take into account women’s rights, in accordance with the Constitution and international, regional and United Nations conventions, agreements and resolutions that have been approved by Yemen. This includes working with all government agencies across various sectors, as well as with civil society organizations and different segments of society in all fields. Unfortunately, the necessary funds are not available.

61.The National Committee for Women participates in a number of relevant government committees, including the technical committee on juvenile justice, the technical committee for the preparation of the comprehensive periodic report on human rights and the national team for the triple-nexus approach. It participates in programmes that serve women in all sectors, despite the limited financial resources allocated to it because of the country’s financial burdens.

62.In response to the recommendation in paragraph 23 of the concluding observations regarding the allocation of financial and human resources for the National Committee for Women, the Government of Yemen supports the role and work of the Committee. For example, the Committee’s communications are issued through the Council of Ministers, in order to highlight the important role that the Committee plays. However, the Committee, like other Government institutions, has been affected by the situation in the country, including Houthi control of certain areas and the economic and political crisis facing Yemen.

63.Further in response to the recommendation in paragraph 23, it should be noted that the inability of the House of Representative to convene for a session since 2015 have hindered the adoption of the draft law on the establishment of an independent national human rights institution, despite the fact that the draft has been ready for years. However, in 2023 and 2024, the Government, the Committee and national partners held regular meetings with United Nations offices and humanitarian organizations operating in Yemen with the aim of accelerating the implementation of the recommendations of the Human Rights Council and the Group of Eminent International and Regional Experts. In addition, Government and several United Nations agencies adopted a joint plan that included practical measures to strengthen the protection of civilians and improve relief and accountability mechanisms, with priority given to the needs of women and girls in conflict-affected areas. The high-level committee also coordinated the efforts of international organizations with a view to facilitating field visits by United Nations teams to Ma’rib, Hadramawt and Aden Governorates, in order to monitor the implementation of humanitarian protection programmes, as well as to ensuring the unimpeded delivery of aid, in cooperation with the High Relief Committee and local authorities.

IV.Gender stereotypes and harmful practices

64.The Government of Yemen, acting through the national mechanisms for women’s issues, the most prominent of which are the National Committee for Women and civil society organizations, plays a prominent role in awareness-raising campaigns to support women human rights defenders. Despite the importance of national efforts, these positive indicators are offset by the serious discriminatory practices of the Houthi militias in areas under their control. These militias, which use sectarian and religious rhetoric, have issued systematic directives that are aimed at entrenching a culture of excluding women from the media and educational curricula, as part of a narrow vision that runs counter to the principle of equality.

65.The National Committee for Women, acting under clear directives from the Office of the President and the Cabinet, has sought to address and combat stereotypes that can reinforce the notion that women are inferior or that men are superior through a broad-ranging campaign that covers the educational curricula, the media and awareness-raising campaigns carried out by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Information, Culture and Tourism and the Ministry of Awqaf and Guidance in order to promote equality between men and women and boys and girls, without discrimination and the notion that one sex is either inferior or superior. This approach has been clearly reflected in the strategic plans adopted in recent years, including the Government’s general programme and the programmes of various ministries and institutions. Those strategic plans include, in particular, the National Strategy for the Development of Women and the National Strategy for Education Development, which includes clear provisions on supporting and empowering women and giving them roles and responsibilities that reflect this commitment.

66.Those efforts included addressing the important and critical issue of female genital mutilation. In 2014, the Government submitted a draft act on safe childhood to the House of Representatives, which was not adopted; it will be resubmitted, given that the National Dialogue Conference established that the legal minimum age for marriage is 18. This issue is currently being addressed in accordance with a circular that was issued by the Ministry of Health. In parallel to those efforts, several awareness-raising initiatives were organized with the support of the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and UFPA. It should be noted that a ministerial decree was issued on 9 January 2001 prohibiting such practices in both public and private healthcare facilities. This was followed by the issuance of Decision No. 3/1 (2005) of the Minister of Health and Population, which provides that all public and private healthcare workers are strictly prohibited from performing female genital mutilation. A draft act on children’s rights was developed in 2014 that criminalizes female genital mutilation and included penalties and fines for the commission thereof. It was submitted to a ministerial committee, but it was not approved. The draft constitution that was adopted at the National Dialogue Conference sets the minimum age of marriage at 18. This provision, which was not included in previous legislation, marks a significant step forward in the effort to combat child marriage. However, owing to the current circumstances in Yemen, it has not been enacted.

67.Civil society organizations play a prominent role in awareness-raising campaigns, but the scope of such campaigns is limited. Such groups include the Akun Foundation and the Path of Peace Initiative, which have supported women human rights defenders. Some local and religious leaders were involved in these campaigns, which did not reach rural areas sufficiently. The tools that have been used include training, public information and advocacy, but such efforts are often not sustainable and lack sufficient financial resources.

68.Despite the importance of national efforts, these positive indicators are offset by the serious discriminatory practices of the Houthi militias in areas under their control. These militias, which use sectarian and religious rhetoric, have issued systematic directives that are aimed at entrenching a culture of excluding women from the media and educational curricula, as part of a narrow vision that runs counter to the principle of equality.

V.Trafficking and exploitation of prostitution

69.The war has exacerbated trafficking in persons and increased the flow of irregular migration from the Horn of Africa, in particular women and children. Traffickers exploit the victims’ dire humanitarian circumstances, given the widespread poverty and high unemployment rates among migrants and internally displaced persons. As a result, women and children have become victims of such crimes. The Houthi militias have committed serious violations against women, including forcing them to prepare food for their armed units on the front lines and documented cases of the abduction, rape and sexual exploitation of dozens of women and girls in areas under their control. Such systematic violations reflect the nature of the crimes that have been committed against women.

70.There has also been an increase in the forms of violence, which includes child marriage, trafficking in persons and exploitation in camps. Estimates indicate that 7.1 million women and girls need protection and treatment services. UNFPA, in its 2023 report on the humanitarian response in Yemen, noted that data on violence against women and girls remain extremely scarce and unreliable because of fear of reporting, social stigma, weak legal redress mechanisms and other factors. With regard to overall protection needs, a study conducted by the executive unit found that approximately 32 percent of the camps require security protection services, some 89,266 people require identity documents and approximately 86,267 children require birth certificates.

71.The Government issued Cabinet Decision No. 101 (2014) approving the Trafficking in Persons Protocol and referred it to Parliament to complete the approval process. In addition, the Government approved a draft act on combating trafficking in persons and referred it to the House of Representatives, and the Cabinet’s plan for the fourth quarter of 2025 includes a draft decision to reactivate the National Committee to Combat Human Trafficking. The Government had established this Committee pursuant to Cabinet Decision No. 46 (2012).

72.The Ministry of Legal Affairs and Human Rights, in cooperation with the relevant ministries and bodies, is drafting a national strategy to combat trafficking in persons. Approval has been given for a programme to protect children against trafficking, and the national technical committee to combat trafficking in persons has resumed its operations and conducted awareness-raising campaigns in partnership with civil society and government media outlets.

73.In October 2024, the Government approved the Arab Protocol to Prevent and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, which was annexed to the Arab Convention on Combating Transnational Organized Crime. This action by the Government is in line with recommendation in paragraph 27 (c) to cooperate with neighbouring countries to reach bilateral or regional agreements and engage in other forms of cooperation to prevent women and girls from being trafficked.

74.In early 2022, the government reactivated the National Committee for Refugee Affairs, which held meetings with United Nations and international bodies that resulted in the resumption of work under the memorandum of understanding and the launch of efforts to develop a national framework for refugee affairs, in cooperation with the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The Government of Yemen has directed official institutions to resume operations from the capital, Aden. The National Committee for Refugee Affairs has begun holding regular meetings, chaired by the Deputy Minister for Affairs, and has discussed its work plan for the next phase. In addition, the National Committee approved its sectoral plans in accordance with the outcomes of the donor conference that was held in Aden in conjunction with the convening of the Global Refugee Forum. High-level officials from government agencies participated in a workshop, at the conclusion of which an important statement outlining commitments and a road map for addressing refugee and international migration issues in Yemen were issued.

75.The participants in the workshop reiterated the need to develop a legal framework to regulate the asylum process in Yemen that reflect the obligations under the conventions that Yemen has approved. In addition, the National Committee adopted the directive of the Ministry of the Interior to issue electronic cards to refugees, in order to facilitate their access to financial, educational and healthcare services. The Ministry of Legal Affairs and Human Rights has designated a legal team to receive complaints and grievances from refugees and migrants. The Ministry monitors violations and addresses them on an ongoing basis in cooperation with the relevant authorities. In addition, it conducts field visits to areas where refugees and migrants are located. The Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Justice conduct a course on the refugee convention for law enforcement agencies and the rights of refugees under the convention. Refugees in Yemen receive emergency humanitarian and protection services from more than 19 local organizations in the various governorates of Yemen, in addition to the basic services that included in the humanitarian response plan. Those services include shelter, healthcare, education, water, voluntary return services and legal protection services.

76.The Office of the Public Prosecutor has established a special division to combat cyberextortion that comprises women and men judges, and it has set up a hotline and an online portal to receive complaints. Public prosecutors in the governorates were instructed to establish special units, departments were set up in the security branches and training courses were organized in partnership with international organizations to enhance the capabilities of prosecutors and judicial enforcement officers. However, those departments still need to enhance their technical and material capabilities. There is a lack of understanding among security and judicial authorities of the concept of trafficking in persons, which has led to such cases being classified under other categories, such as organized crime or transnational crime. The national procedures of the International Criminal Police Organization have been adopted and cooperation agreements with Arab and regional agencies have been concluded.

77.Some security agencies treat the actions of migrant smuggling gangs as trafficking persons offences, and several smugglers from the Horn of Africa have been arrested. However, there is no official database of trafficking in persons victims. Slavery is a criminalized under articles 248 and 249 of the Penal Code (No. 14 of 1994) and carries a penalty of up to 10 years’ imprisonment. The articles are narrow in scope and focused on transactions and movement. As a result, many forms of sex work and sex trafficking, as defined under international law, are not criminalized. Similarly, article 279 criminalizes sex trafficking. There are provisions in the Penal Code that criminalize prostitution and precursor offences and consider them to be illicit trade and trafficking in persons, with a view to protecting women from exploitation and trafficking. The Government is reducing poverty among women, and it supports livelihood programmes and small businesses, thereby helping to prevent women from falling into the hands of criminal gangs.

78.Some shelters for women victims of trafficking in persons have been reopened and conditions in women’s prisons have been improved. The Ministry of the Interior has carried out campaigns to crack down on human trafficking gangs, and it has shut down the detention “compounds” where migrants were being held in Mudarabah District, Lahij Governorate, as well as in Shabwah and Abyan Governorates. Security and judicial authorities are investigating a number of cases that were discovered in Shabwah, Mahrah, Abyan and Lahij Governorates.

79.The Government works in coordination with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, which has opened an office in the region. That office provides primary data on trafficking crimes, most of which are linked to irregular migration. Yemen has endorsed the Global Compact for Migration, the Arab Convention on Combating Trafficking in Persons and the Arab Convention on Combating Money-Laundering. Child protection units were established in cooperation with the United Nations to provide care for child soldiers who were victims of the Houthi militia, and comprehensive rehabilitation programmes have been implemented in Ma’rib Governorate.

Part II:civil and political rights – articles 4, 7, 8 and 9

I.Equal participation in political and public life

80.The National Dialogue Conference of 2013 was significant milestone with regard to the political participation of Yemeni women, who comprised 30% of the representatives. The Conference marked a major turning point on the road to women’s empowerment and the participation of women in public life and decision-making. However, after the Conference, there was a significant decline in women’s representation in leadership positions as a result of the war and the political division that arose. Despite efforts by civil society organizations and national institutions to organize workshops and initiatives to promote the political participation of women and call for the allocation of temporary seats for women in transitional institutions, the reality on the ground is that women continue to be excluded and marginalized. The were no women in the government that was formed in 2020. This continued to be the case at the time that the present report was prepared, in a clear setback to the progress that had been made with regard to the political participation of Yemeni women.

81.Nevertheless, Yemeni women have managed to make several incremental gains with regard to representation in State institutions in recent years. Women accounted for 20% of presidential appointees to the Supreme Judicial Council, and women comprise a similar percentage on the Supreme Medical Committee, which was established by presidential decree. They also comprise 5% of the Consultation and Reconciliation Commission. At the administrative level, six women were appointed as directors in the Ta‘izz and Hadramawt Governorates and 87 women were appointed as directors in various ministries and government agencies. In addition, women’s affairs departments have been established in 22 of the 24 ministries, and the branches of the National Committee for Women were reactivated in 2022 in the liberated governorates of Lahij, Abyan, Shabwah, Hadramawt (coastal, valley and desert regions), Mahrah, Ma’rib and Suqutra. A woman was appointed to the secretariat of the Ministry of Defence, and two police academies for women were opened in Hadramawt and Aden Governorates. In the Ministry of the Interior, there are 2 women who hold the rank of brigadier general and 14 women who hold the rank of colonel, representing a significant increase in women’s representation in the security and military forces. Table 3 shows the number of women in government institutions.

Table 3

Participation of women in government institutions

Institution	Number	Details
Office of the Prime Minister	17	3 at the level of undersecretary and 14 at the level of director
Ministries and government agencies	87	2 at the level of undersecretary, 2 at the level of assistant undersecretary and 83 at the level of director
Ministry of the Interior	458	Number of women holding military ranks, from 2nd lieutenant to brigadier general
Ministry of Justice	77	Women judges and administrators in the secretariat of the Ministry
Courts	62	Women judges, from the Supreme Judicial Council to administrative judges
Prosecutors’ offices	136	Number of women judges in the Office of the Public Prosecutor and its branches
General Department for the Development of Women	33	22 in the ministries and 11 in the liberated governorates
Local authorities in the governorates	15	2 at the level of governorate undersecretary and 13 at the level of director

82.With regard to political parties, Yemen still lacks legislation that requires parties to allocate a specific percentage of seats to women. However, the General People’s Congress has established a quota of 15% for elected bodies. The representation of women varies among the parties. Women comprise approximately 25% of the Nasserist Unionist People’s Organization and 16% of the Yemeni Socialist Party, but they comprise less than 9% of the Yemeni Islah Party and the General People’s Congress. These figures show that women’s representation in political life remains limited and that more extensive legislative measures and party policies are needed in order to achieve equal participation by women in decision-making positions. Figure 1 shows the number of women in the leadership bodies of political parties in Yemen.

Figure 1

Number of women and men in the supreme decision-making bodies of political parties prior to 2015

\s\s\s\s

Source: Al-Mu’tamar Net. Inside information from the parties that was confirmed prior to the split caused by the war.

83.The Government of Yemen has placed particular emphasis on ensuring that women are represented in international forums and the diplomatic corps, whether through appointments, promotions or the assumption of leadership positions, in accordance with the provisions of the Diplomatic and Consular Corps Act. According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, data for 2022 indicated that the total number of Ministry employees was 945, including 133 women (14%) and 814 men (86%), reflecting a gender gap of 84%. With regard to representation in senior positions, there were 181 male ambassadors and 14 female ambassadors (7%). Those figures underscore that there is an ongoing need to increase the number of women in senior diplomatic posts and to empower them in the foreign service. Figure 2 below shows the percentage of women at various job grades at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Figure 2

Distribution of Ministry of Foreign Affairs staff by post and gender, 2022

84.As part of efforts to promote women’s participation in the security sector, the General Department for Family Protection and Women Police was established in Aden and Ma’rib Governorates and in the western coast region. A total of 600 women police officers were trained in several governorates in coordination with Penal Reform International and the Yemeni Women’s Union. In addition, new offices were opened in Aden and Ma’rib in order to improve the performance of security agencies in protecting women and children. Training was delivered to 330 women from the Women’s Police Force and the Prison Service, 70 women legal assistants, 25 women lawyers, 25 women judges and 50 women psychological support specialists as part of the “Universal access to justice for women and girls” initiative, which is funded by the Korea International Cooperation Agency and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and administered in partnership with relevant government agencies. Professional associations were established, including a women’s police association, a women judges’ association and the women in justice network. A centre for the Women’s Police Force was built in Aden, and procedural manuals and plans for the protection of women were developed, some of which were incorporated into local plans. Some 4% of the budgets of local authorities for 2024–2025 were allocated to support protection initiatives and access to justice. A joint technical committee comprising 15 women from official agencies and civil society organizations was formed to support the implementation of the project, which is aimed at empowering women who work in the area of rule of law, as well as at providing legal assistance to women seeking justice. There are 498 women working at the Ministry of the Interior, some of whom hold leadership positions. That marks the beginning of a shift in women’s representation in the security agencies after decades of the near-total absence of women.

85.In the judiciary, a woman was appointed to the Supreme Judicial Council. In addition, Presidential Decree No. 155 (2023) stipulates the appointment of 40 judges to the Supreme Court, of whom 8 are women judges, representing 20% of the total. The Office of the Public Prosecutor includes 159 women judges and staff members working in the offices of the Attorney General, the Judicial Inspection Authority and the public prosecutor’s offices, in addition to 62 women judges in courts at various levels, as shown in table 4. Some 79 female students out of a total of 608 students have graduated from the High Judicial Institute in the period from 2021 to 2025. It should be noted that the Institute admits a new cohort every two years, thereby providing more opportunities for women to join the judiciary.

Table 4

Number of women in the judiciary and their location

	Judicial body	Number of women
1.	Supreme Judicial Council	1
2.	Judicial Inspection Authority	3
3.	Supreme Court	10
4.	Appeals Prosecutor	6
5.	Number of women judges in the courts of the capital, Aden	23
6.	Number of women judges in the courts of Lahij Governorate	2
7.	Number of women judges in the courts of Ta‘izz Governorate	4
8.	Number of women judges in the courts of Hadramawt Governorate	8
9.	Number of women judges in the courts of Mahrah Governorate	1
10.	Number of women judges in the courts of Ma’rib Governorate	5

Source: Supreme Judicial Council, 2025.

86.In the executive branch, the proportion of women in ministries and high-level government agencies varies greatly, ranging from 6% to 65%. The Ministry of Industry and Trade leads the way with regard to women’s empowerment, with women holding 50% of leadership positions and 56% of posts at the level of director. The Ministry is followed by the Office of the Prime Minister, in which 17 of 41 leadership positions (41%) are held by women, including 3 deputy ministers (27%) and 14 directors (56%). In contrast, women hold 6% of leadership positions in the Ministry of Civil Service and 7.3% in the Ministry of Higher Education, while women’s representation in the Ministry of Justice stands at 14.8% of senior leaders and 21% of directors. In the Ministry of Health and Population, women hold 10% of leadership positions, including two women serving at the level of assistant undersecretary, one woman serving as a counsellor and one woman serving as a director. Women hold up 80% of leadership positions in the Ministry of Education and 7.7% of leadership positions in the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Fisheries. Those demonstrate that women’s representation in key ministries remains limited, in particular in the areas of education, health and agriculture.

87.At the local level, women hold approximately 11.5% of leadership positions in the Aden Governorate secretariat and executive councils, with 15.8% of them holding the position of director. Taken together, those indicators confirm that women’s representation in leadership and decision-making positions remains below expectations, despite the positive steps that have been taken by some institutions. Accordingly, clear governmental and legislative policies must be adopted in order to ensure women’s equitable participation at all levels of public administration, the diplomatic corps, the security agencies and the judiciary, in line with the obligations of Yemen under article 7 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

88.In response to the recommendation in paragraph 31(a), it should be noted that, although security and political conditions hinder the ability to organize awareness-raising activities, civil society organizations have carried out awareness-raising campaigns to support women human rights defenders. Those activities were aimed at local and religious leaders in urban areas. With regard to the recommendation 31 (b) on dialogue with decision-makers regarding temporary special measures, the National Committee for Women continuously strives to raise this issue with decision-makers and influence existing procedures, with a view to ensuring greater participation by women. With regard to the recommendations in paragraphs 31(c) and (d), no amendments to legislation can be made because many branches of government, including the House of Representatives, have been paralysed by the conflict. With regard to the recommendation in paragraph 31(e), the availability of gender-disaggregated data remains limited and the data that are available are outdated, thereby limiting the ability of government agencies to use such data to develop and implement policy.

II.Nationality

89.With regard to the recommendations in paragraphs 33 (a)–(f) of the concluding observations, no amendments have been made to the Nationality Act since the amendment of 2009, owing to prevailing conditions in Yemen. Nonetheless, the Government has established a number of limited programmes designed to assist displaced men and women and provide them with services.

90.Paragraph (a) of article 3 of the Nationality Act was amended by the legislature by Act No. 17 (2009), which explicitly provides that Yemeni women have the right to confer their nationality onto their children on the basis of jus sanguinis, thereby putting men and women on equal footing with regard to the transmission of nationality. Under the amendment, Yemeni citizenship is granted to anyone born to a Yemeni father or mother; anyone born in Yemen to a Yemeni mother and a father whose nationality is unknown or is stateless; anyone born in Yemen to a Yemeni mother, but whose paternity has not been legally established; and anyone born in Yemen to parents of unknown identity. An abandoned child discovered in Yemen is considered to have been born in the country, unless proven otherwise. In addition, the law grants individuals who acquired citizenship through their mother the right, upon reaching the age of majority, to choose between retaining Yemeni citizenship or acquiring their father’s nationality.

91.Despite the legislative significance of this amendment, which established the principle of equality in the transmission of nationality, it does not have retroactive effect. Accordingly, the children of Yemeni women married to foreigners who were born before the law took effect cannot enjoy the legal entitlement to acquire nationality automatically. As a result, their applications for citizenship are subject to special procedures and require the approval of the Ministry of the Interior and the relevant committee, causing many administrative and security difficulties for them. In addition, these women and their children have been unable to secure official documents, such as passports and identification cards, and must contend with restrictions on their right to higher education, challenges in accessing employment opportunities and obstacles related to freedom of movement. In that connection, the National Committee for Women and civil society organizations have continued with their efforts to urge the relevant authorities to take the measures needed to overcome those difficulties and ensure the effective enforcement of the right to nationality.

92.With regard to paragraph (b) of article 4 of the Nationality Act, which discriminates against children with disabilities, no amendments have been made to that paragraph owing to the exceptional circumstances caused by the war and the disruption of the legislative process. Although the Government has affirmed its commitment to promoting the rights of persons with disabilities, current circumstances have made it impossible to adopt the necessary legal reforms, leaving discriminatory provisions unamended.

Part III:economic and social rights – articles 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14

I.Education

93.The ongoing war in Yemen has affected various aspects of the educational process, because the conflict has led to the destruction of a large number of schools and the deterioration of the educational infrastructure. Government data show fluctuations in spending on education as a percentage of total public spending, which stood at 14.16% in 2020, 19.78% in 2021 and 14.37% in 2022. Such fluctuation, obviously, had an effect on the services provided. Public budgets and spending are being affected by the economic crisis that has developed as a result of the current situation in Yemen. This has led to increased reliance on donors to cover basic needs, such as providing educational facilities and paying teachers’ salaries. It also has had an adverse effect on the ability to implement the recommendation in paragraph 35 (a) of the concluding observations. In response to the recommendation in paragraph 35 (b), the National Committee to Investigate Claims of Human Rights Violations continues to monitor and document violations committed by the Houthi authorities, which are using schools for military purposes. The National Committee documents such use, which is considered a human rights violation. In a 2021 report, UNESCO indicated that more than 2,500 schools have been closed in Yemen, affecting approximately 4.5 million students and exacerbating the challenges to public education in the country.

Table 5

Gender gap in education

Education indicator	Females	Males	Gender gap
Completion of basic secondary education	41.9%	55.7%	13.8%
Children out of school	14.2%	25.3%	11.1%
Adult literacy	54.1%	86.9%	32.8%

Source : Central Statistical Organization and data from the Ministry of Education for 2022–2023.

94.According to reports from the Yemen Education Cluster, a total of 3,998,091 students were targeted in 2021. The needs of 1,343,186 of those students (34%) were met, while the needs of 2,654,905 students were not met. In 2022, a total of 5,619,000 students were targeted. The needs of 4,151,400 of those students (74%) were met, while the other 1,467,600 students were not given support. In 2023, the programme targeted 5,651,000 students, but it was only able to meet the needs of 2,658,000 of those students (47%).

Table 6

Enrolment rates and gender parity

Year		2021		2023
Indicator		Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
Enrolment in basic education	81%	77%	79%	71.5%	74.7%	77.6%
Gender parity, basic education	–	–	0.95	–	–	0.92
Secondary education enrolment	68%	65%	67%	69.6%	67.6%	65.7%
Gender parity, basic education	–	–	0.96	–	–	0.91

Source: Central Statistical Organization and data from the Ministry of Education for 2022–2023.

95.The number of schools under the Ministry of Education of the legitimate Government stands at 5,745, of which 5,457 are co-educational schools. A total of 267 schools have been permanently closed as a result of repeated attacks. Some schools have been converted into military barracks. Thanks to the efforts of the Projects and Equipment Division and the cooperation of supporting entities, several schools have been rebuilt and renovated, and 21 schools are currently being built. As a result, only 288 schools are currently non-operational.

96.Despite the challenges facing education in Yemen, the Ministry of Education has made significant efforts, in partnership with international organizations, such as UNICEF, as well as the education in emergencies programme and the International Committee of the Red Cross, to rehabilitate schools that have been partially damaged by war and those that have been neglected. Over the past five years, the Ministry has implemented several projects aimed at ensuring comprehensive development and sustainability in education. One of the most significant of those is the project to improve access to quality education for schoolchildren in Yemen, which was implemented from October 2023 to September 2024 with support from the Iqraa (United Kingdom) organization in Tuban District, Lahij Governorate. The project targeted some 1,089 beneficiaries, including students, teachers and educational committees, as well as persons with disabilities. A similar project was implemented in Abyan Governorate with the support of local and international partners. It targeted the same number of students and was focused on providing a safe and inclusive learning environment that takes into account the needs of people with disabilities.

97.The Ministry has put in place special plans to attract girls and their families to education and prevent students from dropping out of school, in particular in rural areas, by offering incentives to female students and teachers. It issued official directives aimed preventing the Houthis and other armed groups from using schools for military purposes, in which it emphasized that schools are safe places and intended solely for education, and that their use for military purposes constitutes a violation of international humanitarian law. The Ministry has participated in international campaigns to end recruitment of children and ensure that they are protected from conflict.

98.In Abyan Governorate, girls-only educational complexes have been established in various districts and equipped with appropriate educational and health facilities. In addition, a significant share of employment opportunities in UNICEF-funded educational contract projects have been set aside for girls, with a view to encouraging the hiring of volunteer women teachers. Female students from these schools have participated in Arab competitions, including the Arab Reading Challenge in Dubai, which has helped increase the belief of families and the local community in the importance of girls’ education. In the Governorate of Hadramawt (coastal region), new schools for girls have been established, sanitation facilities in girls’ schools were rehabilitated and boys’ and girls’ schools were separated. As a result, the enrolment rate of girls in basic education increased from 84 girls per 100 boys to 86 girls per 100 boys between 2020 and 2023. In addition, the gender gap in secondary education narrowed from 86 to 83 during the same period. In Lahij Governorate, comprehensive educational projects were implemented for children with disabilities and students in conflict-affected areas as part of the Ministry’s vision to ensure equitable and inclusive education for all.

99.School dropout rates have increased. In 2021, a total of 2,049,000 students dropped out of school. That number increased to 2,415,764 in 2022 and to 2,676,736 in 2023, reflecting a widening year-on-year increase in the educational gap.

100.In response to paragraph 35 (c), regarding the promotion of girls’ enrolment in and attendance at school, the Ministry, acting through its Girls’ Education Division and Projects Division, implemented a project to re-enrol girls who had dropped out of school in seven governorates, namely, Hadramawt (coastal region and valley region), Lahij, Ma’rib, Dali‘, Abyan, Hajjah and Suqutra. The project, which involved 21 schools, was funded by the King Salman Humanitarian Aid and Relief Centre in partnership with the Islamic World Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The project included equipping schools, providing alternative classrooms and distributing school kits; conducting 14 awareness-raising campaigns to encourage girls to enrol in school; and training and empowering women heads of household who are supporting orphaned and extremely poor girls. In addition, awareness-raising campaigns directed at parents, teachers, mosque imams and local leaders were carried out in order to emphasize the importance of educating girls and empowering them economically.

Table 7

Most important activities carried out by the programme to re-enrol girls who dropped out of school

Core activity	Remarks
Provision of school equipment	School furniture, including blackboards, chairs, student desks, printers, photocopiers, cabinets and other items for 21 schools
Setting up and providing alternative classrooms, along with the necessary supplies	64 alternative classrooms in remote areas that are inaccessible to female students, or in displacement areas where displaced female students have been cut off from education
Distribution of school kits	19,000 school kits containing supplies for female students in targeted areas
Awareness-raising campaigns promoting girls’ education	14 awareness-raising campaigns featuring a variety of media activities aimed at fostering an environment that encourages the education and enrolment of girls
Development of the capacities of teachers and counsellors	Seven training sessions for 350 teachers and counsellors, one session in each governorate
Streamlining of the admission process for displaced and refugee girls	Working with the relevant authorities and the offices of the Ministry of Education in the targeted governorates in order to facilitate the enrolment of the girls and assess their academic levels
Training and empowering women heads of household who are supporting orphaned and extremely poor girls	Implementation of 14 vocational and craft training programmes for 280 women heads of households who are supporting orphaned girls or girls who have dropped out of school owing to their inability to continue in education

Source: Ministry of Education report, 2025.

101.In response to the recommendation in paragraph 35 (d) of the concluding observations, several men and women lawyers conducted field visits to schools and educational institutions with the aim of raising legal awareness among students and adults. They held educational sessions on various topics, including the law on the rights and duties of children and juveniles, reducing school dropout rates, the dangers and effects of drugs, sexual harassment, child marriage, carrying weapons and cyberextortion, as well as promoting a culture of legal awareness among young people and adolescents, with a view to consolidating the principles of responsible behaviour and preventing offences.

102.Coordinating committees have been formed in seven governorates, namely, Aden, Lahij, Abyan, Shabwah, Hadramawt, Ta‘izz and Ma’rib. These are subcommittees that operate under the supervision of the president of the juvenile court or a judge specializing in juvenile cases, and their membership comprises 15 persons from the relevant agencies. The committees hold monthly meetings to discuss the challenges and difficulties in relation to juvenile justice issues, develop timely and practical solutions in coordination with local partners and submit recommendations and official communications to the relevant authorities and monitor their implementation on the ground, with a view to improving the situation of children and juveniles and protecting their rights.

103.The total number of teachers stands at 81,070 (men and women) and the Ministry employs 124,899 persons (men and women). All employees of the Ministry of Education in the liberated areas receive their salaries regularly in accordance with the procedures established by the Ministry of Finance, although there are occasional delays. The Ministry is making every effort to ensure that salaries are paid to all employees in the education sector, including displaced men and women. The number of women teachers increased by 39% in primary education and 47% in secondary education during the 2022/23 school year compared with the previous school year, reflecting an improvement in women’s participation in the teaching profession.

Table 8

Number of men and women teachers in the 2021/22 and 2022/23 school years

Number of teachers		Primary education		Secondary education
School year		2021/22	2022/23	2021/22	2022/23
Men	10 689	16 392	2 356	3 848
Women	6 785	9 435	1 401	2 066
Total	17 474	25 827	3 757	5 914

Source: Statistical yearbook for 2021–2023, Office of the Governorates, Ministry of Education.

104.The Ministry of Education has placed special emphasis on literacy and adult education. The Literacy Department, with support from partners, has sought to provide safe education opportunities for women and girls in conflict-affected areas. In 2019, the Ministry launched the alternative education mechanism, which consists of non-formal programmes that provide remedial or accelerated education for boys and girls who have been unable to attend ordinary schools because of the conflict. These programmes help to reduce child labour and child recruitment and also help to reintegrate children into the education system and develop their skills, thereby contributing to community development.

II.Health

105.Much of the healthcare system in Yemen collapsed after the conflict began. This has had a devastating impact on the health of women and girls. As a result, only one in five of every functioning healthcare facility can provide maternal and child healthcare services. This is due to a shortage of specialized medical personnel, a scarcity of essential medical supplies and the destruction of infrastructure. A total of 17.8 million people in the country need health assistance. Women, who account for 24% of that number, need a variety of medical and reproductive healthcare services. Children account for half of that number, including 540,000 children under the age of 5 who require life-saving treatment for severe wasting. Of that group, 10% suffer from acute severe malnutrition with complications and require specialized care in hospitals. Data gathered by the healthcare resources and services monitoring system indicate that 52.4% of healthcare facilities are fully operational, albeit with some gaps in medical services, while 47.6% of healthcare facilities are only partially operational or are out of service owing to shortages of healthcare personnel and medical supplies, inadequate qualification and training and insufficient funding for operational costs. Full power is available at 24.8% of facilities and partial power at 42.9% of facilities, while 32.3% of facilities have no power. Estimates indicate that 91% to 93% percent of facilities lack standard medical equipment, and the equipment that is available is past its useful life. In addition, 76% of facilities and 87% of healthcare centres do not have information systems.

106.Government data indicate that, in 2022, government spending on healthcare services had fallen to 3.27% of spending. This meagre percentage does not allow for healthcare services to be strengthened and hinders the ability to develop educational programmes, vaccination campaigns and HIV prevention programmes, all of which are addressed in the recommendations in paragraphs 37 (a)–(e) of the concluding observations. The number of deaths during pregnancy and childbirth has increased in areas controlled by the Houthi militias, because these militias have deliberately obstructed women’s access to healthcare facilities and are using many such facilities to treat the war wounded. In addition, the militias have refused to allow women to receive necessary vaccines, claiming that they are manufactured by first-world countries with the aim of harming third-world peoples. The government faces significant challenges in delivering services to all areas in need, in particular to those areas that have been affected by the coup perpetrated by the militias and the destruction of infrastructure. Table 9 below presents information on some key women’s health indicators derived from data compiled by United Nations agencies.

Table 9

Women’s health indicators

Indicator	Value	Source
Women in need of reproductive health services	5.5 million women and girls	United Nations Population Fund
Maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births	183 (2020)118 (2023)	World BankWorld Health Organization
Births with the assistance of trained medical personnel	50%	United Nations Population Fund
Births in healthcare facilities	33%	United Nations Population Fund

107.Some 1.3 million pregnant and breastfeeding women face the risk of acute malnutrition, which threatens their lives and those of their children. As a result, pregnancy and childbirth are a perilous journey for every Yemeni woman. Inequalities are evidenced by the high rates of malnutrition among mothers and children. Malnutrition continues to be a major public health challenge. Pregnancy and childbirth, which should be sources of joy and hope, have become a perilous journey that can end in death. According UNFPA reports, one woman dies every two hours during childbirth or from pregnancy-related causes. The maternal mortality rate stands at 43.3 per 1,000 live births, making Yemen one of the most dangerous countries in the world for childbearing women. This veritable human tragedy occurs every day.

108.More than 5.5 million women and girls of reproductive age lack access to reproductive healthcare services. Most women are deprived of essential healthcare during pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period, because only 20% of healthcare facilities provide comprehensive or basic maternal healthcare services. It is estimated that one Yemeni woman dies approximately every two hours from preventable causes. The maternal mortality rate stood at 118 per 100,000 live births in 2023, according to the World Bank, and at 183 per 100,000 live births in 2020, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). In addition, less than half of all births are medically assisted and only one third occur in healthcare facilities. The effect of inadequate healthcare services extends to all aspects of reproductive health. Women face difficulties in obtaining contraceptives, treatment for gynaecological conditions, routine checkups and necessary vaccinations. The shortage of medical staff, in particular female staff, makes some women hesitant to seek healthcare owing to cultural and social sensitivities. The spread of infectious diseases also has health, psychological and social consequences, as fear creates a state of constant anxiety and stress, while social isolation deprives women of the social support that they need.

109.The data indicate that six governorates had high population-to-hospital ratios, that is to say exceeding 150,000 persons per hospital. The highest ratio was in the Capital District (442,000), followed by Aden (217,000), Hajjah (201,000), Hudaydah (183,000), Ibb (173,000) and Raymah (161,000). Those figures demonstrate the importance of expanding the geographical coverage of hospitals. At the level of the districts, there are no hospitals in approximately 117 of the 333 districts (i.e., 35% of districts), leaving their population without secondary healthcare. The limited number of healthcare centres across the governorates makes it more difficult for the population to access healthcare services. Across the 14 governorates, each healthcare centre serves between 20,000 and 128,000 people, with variations between urban and rural areas. Primary healthcare is essential to ensuring the health of all people. The primary healthcare system comprises healthcare units and centres that are meant to provide a set of basic healthcare services, serve as the gateway to reproductive, neonatal and child healthcare services and offer preventive and curative care before referring patients to higher levels of care. Nationwide, there are fewer than 6 beds per 10,000 population for maternity and inpatient care. This figure is half the standard established by WHO. There is a severe shortage of such beds in 19 out of 22 governorates. At the hospital level, only 7 beds per 10,000 population are available, which is below the minimum standard of 18 beds per 10,000 population. At the governorate level, the highest density of maternity beds is in Amran, with 31 beds per 100,000 population, compared to just 2 beds per 100,000 population in Raymah. There are 9 intensive care beds per 100,000 population in Sana’a and 7 intensive care beds per 100,000 population in Aden and Hadramawt, compared with just 1 bed intensive care beds per 100,000 population in Dali‘ and Lahij. Nationwide, there are 18.8 healthcare workers per 10,000 population, which is below the WHO minimum standard of 22 healthcare workers per 10,000 population. In addition, 37% of operating hospitals lack specialist doctors, with variations across governorates, and the shortage of healthcare personnel poses a challenge in 17 governorates.

110.In line with the recommendation in paragraph 37 of the concluding observations, the Government has rehabilitated and repaired public hospitals and provided support to approximately 60 hospitals and healthcare centres (37 (a)). In addition, the Ministry of Health, with support from international partners and the Social Fund for Development, has trained healthcare personnel in all governorates on epidemic response measures and the provision of healthcare services for women, girls and children, in particular those living in poverty in rural areas (37 (b)).

111.Despite the situation in the country, in September 2024, the Ministry of Public Health and Population, in collaboration with UNICEF and WHO, launched the Yemen National Quality of Healthcare Strategy, with a view to improving clinical safety and performance, building capacity, promoting community engagement and developing information systems. Among the plans, programmes and projects that have been implemented is the Yemen national multisectoral nutrition action plan, which provides a comprehensive framework for improving nutrition and integrating humanitarian, development and peace initiatives across various sectors, including healthcare, agriculture, fisheries, trade, industry, water, sanitation, the environment, education and social protection. The Government, in cooperation with United Nations agencies, has adopted several plans and strategies to ensure that women, in particular women in rural areas, have access to adequate healthcare. Following are some of those plans and strategies:

(a)National reproductive health strategy (2024–2026);

(b)Nutrition strategy (2022–2030);

(c)Immunization strategy (2023–2025);

(d)Healthcare information systems strategy (2024–2028);

(e)National strategy for child and adolescent health (2024–2030);

(f)The Rural Resilience Programme (2022–2025), jointly implemented by UNDP, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Food Programme with funding from the European Union and Sweden, helped to increase the use of renewable energy in rural communities and rehabilitated schools, roads, water networks and sanitation facilities.

112.In May 2024, WHO launched the Emergency Human Capital Project. A total of 1.7 million women received essential healthcare services. Some 61% of those women received care from skilled community midwives. The operating costs of more than 2,400 healthcare facilities were covered, 50 healthcare facilities were upgraded to provide basic emergency obstetric and newborn care and 3,600 community healthcare workers were given daily stipends.

113.UNICEF supports the delivery of primary healthcare services, including child healthcare, nutrition and general services, treatment of common infectious diseases, basic laboratory services, reproductive healthcare, maternal and neonatal healthcare, psychological healthcare and psychosocial support.

114.The executive unit for the management of camps uses mobile healthcare clinics to provide healthcare and nutrition services to displaced women three times a week. In addition, it executes awareness-raising programmes for women on family planning and personal hygiene, monitors implementation of care programmes for pregnant and lactating women, rehabilitates healthcare facilities near the camps and supports women with dignity kits that contain special hygiene items.

115.The healthcare facility in Nujid District, on the island of Suqutra, has begun providing vaccinations for children and pregnant women, nutrition services and an ambulance to transport patients, pregnant women and elderly persons. The emergency obstetrics unit receives at least 20 cases daily, with services provided by women specializing in reproductive health.

116.The Yemeni Women’s Union, in partnership with international organizations, has provided healthcare services, including psychological support, reproductive healthcare services and post-sexual violence counselling, to women living near displacement camps, as well as legal assistance to victims through the livelihoods project. Those initiatives have enabled women to reclaim their rights and cope with the effects of violence, despite how difficult it can be to avail oneself of such services in some displacement areas because of the security conditions and lack of resources. Since 25 February 2023, a total of 38,356 women and girls who are survivors of violence benefited from support services.

117.In December 2024, the Government, in partnership with international organizations, launched a network of women community healthcare workers in approximately 90 rural districts. More than 3,600 women healthcare workers were trained to provide comprehensive services for children and mothers, including nutrition, vaccinations, prenatal and postnatal care, and detection of malnutrition, among other services.

118.As part of infrastructure support efforts, the Public Works Project launched an initiative to improve infrastructure and establish and expand several healthcare and primary care centres, including centres that provide reproductive healthcare services for mothers. The initiative is targeted at the poorest areas with the greatest needs, with a view to alleviating the burden of women who are forced to travel long distances. In addition, the Government, in cooperation with the World Bank, UNICEF, WHO, the United Nations Office for Project Services and the Ministry of Health, launched a project to provide preventive and curative services to mothers and children under the age of 5 at healthcare facilities and mobile clinics.

III.Economic empowerment of women and social benefits

119.The following section provides an update on the progress made with regard to the recommendations in paragraphs 40 (a), (b) and (c) of the concluding observations. Yemen abides by the principles of the ILO conventions that it has ratified. Accordingly, the Labour Code guarantees the rights of workers without discrimination, including the right to work, the number of working hours and wages, and it gives effect to the principle of positive discrimination for women in respect of leave related to pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding. Article 45 provides that working women are entitled to 70 days of maternity leave with full pay, including the period before and after childbirth, on the basis of a certified medical certificate. Article 46 provides that women cannot be dismissed or have their employment terminated because of their entitlement to maternity leave. It also provides that they are entitled to one hour of paid leave per day for a full year following their return from maternity leave for the purpose of breastfeeding, with the option to split this hour or schedule it at the beginning or end of the workday, in agreement with the employer. The Code also provides that women are precluded from night work in order to protect their privacy, with the exception of specific cases, such as work in the healthcare sector or aviation. Article 42 provides that women cannot work at night except in jobs that are specified in a decision issued by the Minister, if that is necessary.

120.However, the overall situation in the country and the inability of the House of Representatives to hold legislative sessions have made it impossible to amend the relevant legislative provisions in a manner that would promote the participation of women and respond to the recommendation in paragraph 40 (b) of the concluding observations on amending maternity leave entitlements in line with ILO conventions. The above also applies to the Government’s ability to pay public sector employee salaries on a regular basis, as this is affected by the current economic crisis in Yemen, and its ability to ensure financial liquidity. In addition, the legitimate Government is unable to protect women’s economic rights in Houthi-controlled areas, where the Houthi terrorist militias continue to engage in discriminatory practices. Those militias seek to limit the fields in which women can work on the basis of a stereotypical view, thereby restricting women’s freedom and reinforcing traditional perceptions of women’s roles in society.

121.According to a 2023 UNDP report, most of the population of Yemen lives in poverty. The 2021 Human Development Report showed that 82.7% of the population lives in multidimensional poverty, with an average poverty and deprivation rate of 46%. To address the situation, the following steps have been taken:

(a)Various programmes and projects have been implemented, including cash assistance and unconditional social protection for poor families through monthly cash transfers, covering approximately 105 million households, as well as livelihood programmes and economic empowerment projects funded by certain donors, such as the European Union and the Saudi Development and Reconstruction Programme for Yemen, to support smallholder farmers and poor rural families. Table 10 provides a summary of the assistance provided by the Social Welfare Fund of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour.

Table 10

Social Welfare Fund beneficiaries in liberated areas, disaggregated by type of beneficiary and sex

Group	Women	Men	Total
Beneficiaries	261 277	292 788	554 065
Orphans	6 796	7 903	14 699
Elderly persons	101 818	95 489	197 307
Unemployed	3 086	146 753	149 839
Partially disabled	13 678	29 816	43 494
Completely disabled	5 354	11 156	16 510
Temporar il y disabled (partially/totally)	634	2 799	3 433
Unemployed women	–	–	–
Grand total	392 643	586 704	979 347

(b)United Nations agencies have played a significant role in supporting economic assistance programmes for women. UN-Women has provided tailored support designed to create appropriate opportunities for and empower women in Aden, Amran, Hadramawt, Hudaydah, Ibb and Sana’a Governorates. This initiative, which is funded by the Government of Japan, covers such areas as emergency crisis response, social protection services, support for temporary shelters, life skills training, cash-for-work programmes and livelihood support for many women.

(c)Programmes to improve the livelihoods of women in Yemen have been implemented with support from UNDP. A total of 31,097 women have benefited from the programme and received training in various skills, including handicrafts, incense production and cosmetics.

122.The National Committee for Women and several relevant government agencies, in cooperation with the Yemeni Women’s Union and civil society organizations, have developed economic empowerment programmes for women in various trades. The focus of these programmes, which also provide equipment and raw materials, either directly or through financial grants, is on training, capacity-building and marketing, in order to ensure the sustainability of activities and minimize risks. Following are some of the most significant initiatives:

(a)A government fellowship programme for women in Ma’rib was established with the aim of increasing the number of women employees in the local authorities. A total of 70 women and girls, half of whom were employed in governorate and district offices and half of whom were recent graduates, received training in various skills, including local governance, participatory planning, public budgeting, public procurement and project management. The graduates were assigned to the executive offices of local authorities for a three-month practical training programme. Eight graduates of the programme were hired on full-time contracts by various government agencies, including the Directorate of Administrative Development, the Public Works Office, the Health Office, the Industry and Commerce Office and the Legal Affairs Office. The Ministry of Local Administration has implemented Presidential Decree No. 180 (2008) amending the regulations governing governorate and district offices, reactivated the General Directorate for Women’s Development at the governorate and district levels, and issued Ministerial Decree No. 1 (2023) on the organizational structure of the General Directorate’s subdepartments. In addition, the General Directorate has been tasked with proposing policies and programmes to improve the status of women at the local government level and providing institutional support and capacity-building for women’s affairs units and female staff in district offices.

(b)The institutional evaluation of women’s affairs units was aimed at achieving several objectives, including providing guidance on how to respond to the challenges facing women and promote their access to decision-making positions at the local level, and developing a strategic plan for the General Directorate for Women’s Development in the Ministry of Local Administration. Following the completion of the assessment, a workshop was held to discuss the findings and develop a strategic plan for the women’s development departments.

123.The Ministry of Industry and Trade, as part of its effort to promote women’s economic empowerment, has taken several measures, including:

(a)The Entrepreneurship Unit, which serves both sexes, was established in 2023.

(b)The Small and Micro-Enterprise Finance Fund was relocated from Sana’a to Aden in order to create opportunities for entrepreneurs and small and medium-sized enterprises.

(c)In 2023, women comprised half of the staff members who participated in the Ministry’s training programmes. The Ministry’s total workforce stood at 127 employees (71 women and 56 men).

(d)The latest statistics available for 2024 indicate that five women have obtained business licenses. The Ministry has also streamlined procedures for women seeking to establish their own businesses, including the procedures for registering a trade name in the commercial registry under the name of the owner.

(e)According to data from the Ministry in Aden, some 74 businesswomen held a commercial registration in 2021 and 2022, while some 60 businesswomen held such a registration in 2023 and 2024 That decline is attributable to the war and the effect that it has had on the currency, as well as to rising prices, which led to an economic recession and the failure and closure of some projects.

(f)In the past five years, the number of businesses owned by men stood at 7,500 in Aden and 4,000 in the other liberated governorates. On the other hand, there were 2 women businesses owner, 5 women who held trademarks and 2,000 women who ran projects from their homes.

(g)At the governorate level, the Social Fund in Lahij has enabled rural women to establish their own businesses through savings funds, offered training programmes to develop rural women’s skills and helped some rural women to become entrepreneurs, despite their limited budgets.

124.In the coastal region of Hadramawt, there has been a gradual improvement in the quality and nature of women’s participation in economic activities. Women have entered non-traditional fields by opening such businesses as pharmacies, grocery stores, bakeries, internet cafes, vegetable stands and stores selling clothing and cosmetics. Rural women account for a significant portion of agricultural and livestock-related activity. In addition, some 740 women are employed in the fisheries sector and more than 3,150 women are involved in sea salt production. Civil society organizations have implemented training programmes for women on the technical and financial aspects of small business management and established a youth support fund in Hadramawt that has provided loans to 40 women. The number of businesswomen registered with the Chamber of Commerce in Mukalla stands at 170. That number is in addition to the many women who run unregistered businesses. With regard to government employment, women continue to be employed primarily in sectors that are associated with their traditional social roles. In 2023, women accounted for 54% of the workforce in the education sector and 33% of workers in the health sector, approximately 20% of the Governorate’s administrative staff and some 17% of the private sector workforce, according to data from the Hadramawt branch of the National Committee for Women.

IV.Rural woman

125.The Government, acting through the Ministry of Local Administration, the government body responsible for developing local administration and development systems, has placed special emphasis on developing policies that address the needs of women in rural areas, and it has taken several institutional measures and executed projects that are designed to have a rapid and sustainable impact.

126.On instructions from the President of the Presidential Leadership Council, the Government has supported and strengthened law and judicial enforcement agencies in all regions, governorates and districts in order to ensure that justice is accessible to all citizens, in particular women and children, whose ability to access justice has been compromised by the war. The Government, through security departments at the governorate and district levels, has established a Family Protection Department and trained new women police officers to work in courts and police stations, with the aim of making those spaces women-friendly and welcoming, in particular in rural areas, where customs and traditions limit women’s access to justice. Several governorates have issued local government decrees empowering women to hold administrative positions in police departments and investigative and complaint-handling units. In addition, efforts are under way to develop a national strategy for security deployment plans and judicial reform strategies, with a view to facilitating women’s access to justice. The Government is working in partnership with the Yemeni Women’s Union to deliver support services and legal aid to poor and remote areas.

127.In line with the recommendations in paragraphs 42 (a)–(d), the Government attaches particular importance to the economic empowerment of rural women, owing to the effect that it can have on strengthening food security, combating poverty and sustaining rural production and the rural economy, which serves as a source of livelihood for many families who have lost their sources of income as a result of the war and have been displaced to rural areas. In addition to the information provided above regarding health, education and employment, we will now address certain issues that are specific to rural areas:

(a)The Local Recovery and Resilience Fund has funded more than 40 priority projects that are in the development plans of the local authorities, including projects for education, energy, solar power systems and solar-powered street lighting, health, local authority infrastructure and water. In the inaugural year (2021), the Public Works Project implemented the first phase of the projects. Those were completed and handed over to the relevant local authorities and offices.

(b)The aim of the Strengthening Institutional and Economic Resilience in Yemen project is to promote local economic development through cooperation among the public and private sectors and civil society, with a view to creating better conditions for economic growth and job opportunities. The project is focused on building local economic capacity in the targeted districts in cooperation with local authorities. The project involves establishing a collaborative platform to revitalize the local economy in Aden, Lahij, Hadramawt (coastal and valley regions), Ma’rib and Ta‘izz Governorates. Each collaborative platform consists of 10 to 12 members: 4 or 5 representatives from local government, 4 or 5 representatives from the private sector and 2 representatives from civil society organizations that are involved in local development.

(c)Rural women have been trained to produce value-added products. As part of this initiative, financial and technical support, including communication support, has been provided to smallholders and small and medium-sized enterprises, including business associations, to help them to develop their projects and increase household income.

V.Internally displaced and migrant women

128.Under the Social Welfare and Social Welfare Fund Act, widows are considered to be one of the groups that are eligible for social welfare. Accordingly, they are given cash assistance. In addition, international organizations and funds support soft loans and livelihood improvement programmes for widows, with the aim of promoting their financial independence and enabling them to respond to economic challenges.

129.The Government has taken into account the needs of displaced women. To that end:

(a)On 4 January 2023, the Government approved an update to the national policy on internal displacement and forced displacement, such that the national framework for responding to displacement and caring for displaced persons covers all stages: prior to displacement, displacement and return. The executive unit for displaced persons is responsible for its implementation, while being cognizant of and safeguarding the rights of displaced persons.

(b)The executive unit provided various types of shelter for displaced families. In 2022, it provided 84,304 beds in the camps and coordinated with local authorities to secure 646 sites, 214 of which were legally owned, where camps could be established.

(c)In coordination with the Ministry of Education, 406,755 displaced students were enrolled in public schools and the enrolment of students who had lost their documents when they were displaced was facilitated. In addition, 67 temporary schools were established in camps without schools as efforts were made to find permanent solutions to internal displacement.

(d)An agreement was reached with the humanitarian team led by the United Nations humanitarian coordinator to incorporate livelihood projects in the 2023 humanitarian response plan. As a result, 2,326 families benefitted from livelihood projects in the first half of 2022.

130.The Government is committed to upholding the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees of 1951 and the Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees of 1967. In cooperation with UNHCR, it strives to develop general and local development programmes for governorates affected by mixed migration and refugee flows, while ensuring that refugees are treated in accordance with local regulations and that humanitarian needs are met, despite the limited international aid available.

VI.Persons with disabilities

131.The Government continues to implement policies to ensure the rights of persons with disabilities in accordance with international conventions, including by formulating national policies, empowering persons with disabilities, building the capacity of staff in government institutions and operationalizing the Welfare Fund for Persons with Disabilities in order to provide financial and in-kind assistance and implement rehabilitation programmes. Table 11 presents an overview of the services provided to persons with disabilities, while the following are some of the most significant measures that have been taken in that regard:

(a)Designating 9 December as National Day for Persons with Disabilities, pursuant to Cabinet Decision No. 50 (1990);

(b)Monitoring and evaluating services provided in line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including the publication, updating and digitization of a local sign language dictionary;

(c)Providing medical equipment to a hospital for persons with disabilities and increasing the fees collected for the fund. In 2022, the number of beneficiaries was 15,498. That figure increased to 24,888 in 2023;

(d)Providing various services, including cash transfers, distributing face masks and sterilization kits, providing educational and healthcare services and supporting civil society organizations that care for persons with disabilities;

(e)Funding 41 centres and associations in order to promote rehabilitation activities in social welfare centres, granting licences to more than 60 new civil society organizations and organizing activities to celebrate International Day of Persons with Disabilities.

Table 11

Services provided to persons with disabilities, 2021–2023

Types of service	Unit	2021	2022	2023
Healthcare services	Person	2 430	9 265	19 529
Educational services (number of beneficiaries)	Person	315	532	532
Education expenditure	Millions of rials	31.4	–	–
Support for non-governmental organizations	Millions of rials	185.7	227.8	241.5
Number of associations (operating expenses)	Association	37	–	–

Source: Fund for the Care and Rehabilitation of Persons with Disabilities, Aden office (2023).

Part IV: Family status – articles 15 and 16

Marriage and family relations

132.The principle of equality before the law is a constitutional principle that is well-established in Yemeni legislation. The Constitution guarantees equality among all citizens with regard to rights and duties and affirms the principle of equality of opportunity. Emphasis is placed on the application of this principle within the framework of the law and with regard to social justice. Moreover, not only is this general principle articulated in the Constitution, but it has also been further developed by lawmakers, who translated it into binding procedural rules that are incorporated into basic laws, such as the Judiciary Act, the Code of Procedure, the Penal Code and the Labour Act. The Constitution of Yemen, as amended in 2001, explicitly and clearly enshrines the principle of equality before the law, which is considered one of the general rights and duties enjoyed by all citizens. Following are some of the most notable relevant provisions of the Constitution:

(a)Article 25: “Yemeni society is founded on social solidarity that is based on justice, freedom and equality, in accordance with the law”.

(b)Article 41: “All citizens are equal in respect of general rights and duties”.

(c)Article 24, concerning the State’s obligation to ensure equality of opportunity: “The State shall guarantee equal opportunities for all citizens in political, economic, social and cultural spheres, and shall enact such laws that are necessary to achieve that”.

(d)Other laws, such as the Code of Criminal Procedure, reinforce the principle of equality in judicial and criminal matters. Article 5 of the Code provides that all citizens are equal before the law and may not be prosecuted or harmed on the basis of nationality, race, origin, language, religion, profession, educational level or social status.

133.There were legislative deficiencies that were addressed in the outcomes of the National Dialogue Conference and the draft of the new constitution, the adoption of which was derailed by the coup that the Houthi militias perpetrated in defiance of the national consensus and legitimacy. The draft constitution, in its article 57, provides that “citizens are equal in general rights and freedoms, without discrimination on the basis of sex or colour”. The draft amended constitution would repeal article 31, implement the principle of equal citizenship and enshrine the State’s commitment to ensuring the effective political participation of women, with a minimum of 30% representation of women in various authorities and bodies. In order to combat child marriage, the draft of the new constitution sets the minimum age for marriage at 18.

134.Lawmakers have put in place a set of safeguards to ensure that the principle of equality before the law is applied in legislation, which can be summarized as follows:

Area of the law	Basic law	Equality goal
Judiciary and proceedings	“All litigants are equal before the law, regardless of their characteristics” (Judiciary Act, art. 2)	Procedural equality: ensuring the impartiality of judges and that all have an equal opportunity to present their defence in court
Work and economic rights	“Women shall be equal to men in respect of all conditions of employment and employment rights … and wages” (Labour Code, art. 42)	Social equality: ensuring equal pay for equal work and non-discrimination in hiring and promotion
Civil rights	Ensuring that all persons have legal capacity to own and dispose of property, in accordance with the Civil Code	Civil equality: financial independence and freedom to contract and of ownership, without discrimination on the basis of sex

135.The Personal Status Act (No. 20 of 1992) governs family relations in accordance with the provisions of Islamic law, while observing the principles of justice and equality in respect of reciprocal rights and duties:

(a)Under article 41, the husband must treat his wives fairly, if he has more than one wife, in order to ensure equal treatment.

(b)Article 41 affirms women’s financial independence and prohibits husbands from interfering with their wives’ personal funds.

(c)Article 183 provides that donations must be distributed equally among children and heirs in accordance with the requirements of Islamic law, in order to ensure financial justice among family members.

(d)However, several obstacles stand in the way of efforts to amend the laws pertaining to family matters and implement the recommendations in the concluding observations, particularly in the context of the current conflict, which has made it impossible to develop legislative amendments because the House of Representatives is unable to convene legislative sessions. Among those obstacles are the conservative environment of Yemen and traditional attitudes toward women, which have intensified during the conflict owing to social concerns for women’s safety. As a result, efforts to promote women’s rights in the family have been limited to awareness-raising activities. The aforementioned attitudes have helped to entrench prevalent stereotypes and traditional gender norms.